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| 2018年度 異文化言語教育評価論 |
異文化言語教育評価論IIB
201920115 青木重憲
Namaziandost, E., & Nasri, M. (2019). A
meticulous look at Long’s (1981) interaction hypothesis: does it have any
effect on speaking skill. Journal of Applied
Linguistics and Language Research, 6 (2),
218–230.
1.
Introduction
The mastery of speaking skills in language
has become a priority for many second or foreign language learners (Richards,
2005). In addition, the significance of mastering speaking skills of the target
language arises when the language learners realize the impact it would have on
the success of their future careers.
The lack of interaction or the use of the
language will negatively affect language learners in their communications because
conversations are part of the socio-cultural activities through which students
construct knowledge collaboratively.
The purpose of the present study is to show the importance of the
role of classroom interaction as a necessary and useful strategy to enhance the
speaking skill.
2.
Research question
Do interactive activities have any
significant effect on the development of speaking skills of language Iranian
EFL learners?
3.
Literature review
(1) Learners who can speak English fluently, might have greater chances
for employment (Baker & Westrup, 2003).
(2) Language learners negotiate in meaning in order to concentrate on
form and process of the input they obtain (Long, 1981).
(3) Input alone is not as effective as interactional modified input in
helping language teaching and learning (Namaziandost, Rahimi Esfahani, Nasri,
& Mirshekaran, 2018; Namaziandost, Abdi Saray, & Rahimi Esfahani, 2018;
Wang & Castro, 2010).
(4) Language instructors should facilitate learners with meaningful
communicative situations about proper topics by applying leaner-learner
interaction as the key to teach communicative language (Namaziandost, Fatahi,
& Shafiee, 2019; Richards & Renandya, 2002).
(5) Class time should not be dominated by the teachers, (Namaziandost,
Saberi Dehkordi, & Shafiee, 2019; Gass & Selinker, 2008) because this
will give students less time if teachers spend too much time on explaining
topics and giving instructions.
(6) Teaching based on interaction in the classroom can be the best
pedagogical strategy in language development, in particular verbal language
development (Kouicem, 2010).
(7) Teaching methods in which interactive activities are involved have
greater effect on the development of speaking skills of language learners (Luan
& Sappathy, 2011).
(8) The classroom interaction is the way of improving the learners’
speaking skill and gender has no effect on their speaking performance (Azadi &
Azizifar, 2015).
4.
Method
4.1 Participants
60 intermediate male students ranging in age from 14-20
4.2 Instruments
(1) Oxford Placement Test (OPT) as a proficiency test
(2) a researcher-made speaking pre-test
(3) a researcher-made speaking post-test
4.3 Data collection procedures
(1) Participants were divided into two groups (experimental and control)
according to an OPT test.
(2) Participants were pre-tested by a researcher-made speaking test.
(3) The treatment was held on both groups:
interactive activities via learner-learner interaction for the
experimental group
and traditional teacher centered instruction for the control group.
(4) Participants took the researcher-made speaking test as a post-test.
4.4 Three kinds of student activities for interaction
(1) Think, pair, and share as pair activities
(2) Brainstorming as individual student activities
(3) Buzz session as group activities
4.5 Data Analysis
For checking the normality of distribution, Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S)
test was used. Then, one-way ANCOVA was run to analyze the data.
5.
Results
5.1 Results of Normality Tests
As all the p values in Table 1 were larger than .05, it could be
concluded that the distributions of scores for the tests had been normal.
5.2 Results for the Research Question
The post-test mean score of the experimental group learners (M =
16.0333) was larger than the post-test mean score of the control group learners
(M = 13.7833). To check the significance, ANCOVA was used.
Under the Sig. column, the p value was lower than the alpha level of
significance (.00< .05), which indicates that the difference between the two
groups of EG (M = 16.0333) and CG (M = 13.7833) on the speaking post-test was
statistically significant.
6.
Discussion and Conclusion
(1) Learner-learner interaction had a remarkable effect on enhancing
speaking ability of language learners.
(2) The students supported each other by participating in the
interactions that took place inside the classroom.
7.
Limitation
In order to get
a deeper insight into the issue of learner-learner interaction in promoting
speaking skills of language learners, adopting a mixed-method (quantitative and
qualitative research method) should be considered.
Alexander, R. (2008). Essays on pedagogy.
New York: Routledge
Namaziandost, E., & Nasri, M. (2019). A meticulous
look at Long’s (1981) interaction hypothesis: does it have any effect on
speaking skill. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 6 (2),
218-230.
Norris, J. (2018). TOEFL® research insight series,
volume 3: Reliability and comparability of TOEFL iBT® scores.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development
of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
My discussion points
(1) Was the test valid?
The researchers here used their own made speaking tests
as pre and post test. They checked reliability and validity the tests through
pilot test on a similar group before this research. Its reliability was (r=0.899). However, to
make the tests more valid and reliable, they should have used more general
tests, such as TOEFL Speaking test.
According to TOEFL®, the reliability of
TOEFL speaking test is .80. TOEFL is prevalent and the number of examinees is
quite large.
(2) What kinds of abilities did the speaking tests assess?
The researchers concluded that learner-learner
interaction had a remarkable effect on enhancing speaking ability of language
learners, or meaningful interaction between students was a significant factor
for developing speaking skill. However, we cannot find which skills in the
speaking developed through interaction. It might be complexity, accuracy or
fluency (CAF).
It is because, at first, they don’t show what kind of
speaking skills they tested on the pre and post speaking test. Second, they
don’t tell what aspects they focused on during the intervention such as
students’ participation or what students said. Third, they don’t show the
teachers’ instruction during the three activities. We can’t know what kinds of
instructions teachers indicated during the activities.
(3) What effects are expected through interactive activities?
Interaction has a crucial role in
learning. Classroom communication needs to become more dialogic (Alexander,
2008). The role of dialogue in pupil learning is more than just promoting
better thinking and raised standards. Vygotsky (1978) points out that the acts
of speaking and writing both complete and transform an individual’s thoughts. A
learner’s higher cognitive processes are developed through interaction between
individuals. Through interaction, students can broaden their thoughts by
listening others’ ideas. In addition, students learn how to cooperate with
others. In other words, students build good relationship with peers through
interaction.
The method using interactive activities
are useful not only for raising speaking skills, but for building good
relationships and confidence to use English in front of others.
According to discussion
point (3), I read the following research paper on the effect of interactive activity,
role play, on learners’ speaking skill.
Kumaran,
S. R. (2017). Benefits and shortcomings of role-play as a speaking activity in
English language classrooms. The English
Teacher, 34, 72–93.
1. Introduction
1.1 Objectives
(1) To
explore the contribution of role-play in increases students’ motivation
in speaking English
(2) To
study whether role-play in increasing students’ cognitive ability in
speaking English
1.2 Significance
(1) Role-play
is able to encourage students to communicate without hesitation and fear
when facing real-life situations.
(2) Role-play
is student-centered teaching activity.
(3) Role-play
in the classrooms enables students to improve their pronunciation.
2. Definition
of Role-play
(1) Speaking
activity (Budden, 2007)
(2) Activities
involving participants in ‘simulated’ actions and circumstances under
‘controlled’ conditions (Yardley, 1997)
(3) An
opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in
different social roles (Larsen-Freeman, as cited in Pramela Krish, 2001)
(4) Facilitator
of second language acquisition (Scarcella and Crookall as cited in Pramela
Krish, 2001)
While
the traditional approach emphasizes accuracy and form of language, the
communicative approach puts a lot of stress on fluency and competency. Accuracy
can also be achieved through practicing the language.
3. Advantages
of Role-play
(1) Motivation
(2) Self-esteem
(3) Opportunities
for Shy Learners
(4) Learner-centered
(5) Interesting
Activities
4. Limitations
of Role-play
(1) Teacher
Loses Control over Lesson
(2) Time Constraints
(3) Inappropriate
Classroom Management
(4) Incorrect
Grammatical Production
(5) Lack of
Purpose
5. Methodology
5.1 Participants:
79 senior high school students in Malaysia
5.2 Procedure:
All the participants were addressed 2 interventions and questionnaires.
(1) Structured
role-play: In the form of a flow-chart and students were given information of
what to say
(2) Free
role-play: A short game, asking students to describe their friends and guessing
who they describe. Students described the physical appearance of people using
adjectives
(3) Questionnaires
to teachers and students
6. Findings
(1) Difficulty
of Role Play
Reasons:
(A) With the lack
of understanding of the role-play function
(B) With the help
of guidance
(C) With the lack
of the language structure knowledge needed to carry out the task
(2) Speaking
Opportunities
The guidance (in structured role play) enabled students to speak in English. It’s because the guidance gave students ideas of what to say. On the other hand, very few students thought that free role-play encouraged them to speak because they were too caught up with the idea of having fun (describing and drawing pictures
60％ of the
student’s thought that role-play offered them more opportunities to speak in
English thanks to the fun and purposefulness. However, 40% of students felt
that they speak English more in drilling (the whole class repeats after the
teacher). It’ because students thought that it was easy to follow and repeat
compulsory what the teacher says many times
(3) Working
style
Students
enjoyed carrying out role-play. They thought it easier and more comfortable
(4) Responses
of Role-play
Nearly
half the students enjoyed the free role-play because it was interesting
The
reason they thought it interesting was free role-play gave them an opportunity
to break away from their daily textbook routine
Moreover,
31% of the students thought the structured role-play easier to do. Because they
did not have to think a lot in order to communicate (especially for low
proficient students). On the other hand, 22 % of the students thought free
role-play was difficult. Students thought it was challenging and required a lot
imagination and creative thinking (especially for high proficient students).
The
reason that structured role-play was less interesting was that students’
responses were restricted by the flow-chart provided. This leads to students’
less imagination.
The
smallness of the percentage of shyness (9%) in structured role-play meant more
confident in using English through structured role-play
(5) Time
Allocation for Speaking Skill
Reading
and writing skills should take precedence over speaking skills for teachers.
Because teachers put emphasis on reading and writing skills in school examinations
(6) Teaching
Method
Teachers
preferred using traditional methods such as drilling and reading aloud. It’s
because teachers relied on textbooks to teach English and these books offered
very few communicative activities.
(7) Use of
Role-play as a Speaking Activity
Teachers
concentrated more on writing skills or were exam-oriented rather than speaking.
(8) Seating
Arrangement
It was
easier to divide the students into pairs compared to groups. Even if group work
was done, some students might not participate in the activity.
7. Summary
of Findings
(1) Role-play
did encourage students to speak in English.
(2) Students
could practice speaking in English among their peers freely in role-play
activities.
(3) Teachers
should emphasize speaking skills rather than concentrate on exam-oriented
teaching.
8. Recommendations
(1) Published
books on role-play should be readily available for teachers to use in
classrooms.
(2) Teachers
should give clear and precise instructions to avoid any confusion over the
role-play.
(3) Teachers
should bear in mind that correction of errors should not be done immediately
while students are role-playing. Instead, correction of errors should be done
in a general way through class discussions.
My
conclusion
Interactive activities are useful for speaking. Moreover, we can apply
the activities to other skills like reading and writing. For deeper
understanding of the text, we can use interactive activities such as
discussion, and monitor our understandings with peers. By monitoring, we may
change or strengthen our ideas. It leads to confidence and motivations for
learning. Language is not only a tool for conveying the ideas but a tool to
modify ideas or thought through social interaction with peers, teachers,
parents and communities. This is languaging.
Teachers
should not blame for the entrance examinations or the curricula. It is
teachers’ responsibility whether to embed interactive activities such as
role-play in English classes or not. The system is not a problem. It is a way of thinking of teachers that
makes it difficult to carry out speaking practices. There are many ways to give students
opportunities to speak English other than role-pay. To give students
opportunities for interaction bears confidence and motivations. This makes
students desire to speak or learn English more. In a country like Japan, especially,
where there is little chance to speak English out of school, to provide
opportunities for learners to speak English is crucial. Just acquiring the
knowledge is not enough. To use the
knowledge is also important,
References
Hinkel, E. (2018). Teaching speaking in
integrated‐skills classes. The TESOL Encyclopedia
of English Language Teaching, 1–6.
Kumaran,
S. R. (2017). Benefits and shortcomings of role-play as a speaking activity in
English language classrooms. The English
Teacher, 34, 72–93.
Kumaraswamy, S. (2019). Promotion of Students
Participation and Academic Achievement in Large Classes: An Action Research
Report. International Journal of Instruction, 12(2),
369–382.